Public Debt And Its Political Implications Economics Essay

Public Debt And Its Political Implications Economics EssayThe debt recoil or so called debt ceiling is the organic sum of money that the US presidential term is allowed to strike in order to cover the existing expenditures national defense, interest on the national debt, Medicaid and Medicare benefits and other expenditures. The debt limit enables the government to cover the disbursal that was negotiated between carnal knowledgees and death chairs in the past. Nevertheless, it does non apply for unexampled, un figureed expenditures. If the debt ceiling limits the government to pay for expenditures that are lawful obligations (e.g. interest on the national debt, government employee wages, and so forth), the debt ceiling evict lead to the default of the US (US Department of the treasury, 2012).The U.S. Debt-Ceiling Crisis and the Budget concur Act of 2011In whitethorn 2011, the exchequer declared that the debt ceiling of US $14.29 cardinal had been reached, but that extr aordinary measures could prevent a default and keep government operational. For several months after this announcement, the debt ceiling was in the center of a governmental battle between the Republi butt ends, who controlled the House of Representatives since the 2010 elections, and President Obama and the Democrats who controlled the Senate. The Re ordinaryans insisted on revenue add-ons and spending drops as condition for their approval of an plus in the debt ceiling. Both parties could not come to a compromise and by the end of July, the surface areas default approached. Finally, an capital of New Hampshire between President Obama and Congressional leaders was reached by the night of July 31, 2011 (Eells, 2013).On August 2, 2011, President Obama gestural the Budget Control Act (BCA) that raised the debt ceiling and thus averted the looming, first-ever US government default. The Budget Control Act authorized the increase of the debt limit in three installments. First, the Pr esident can require the immediate increase of the debt limit by US $four hundred billion. Second, the debt limit can be increased by additional US $500 billion, if a joint resolution of disapproval is not enacted. Thirdly, the President can require an additional number between US$1.2 one thousand thousand and US $1.5 trillion that is also the subject to congressional disapproval (Heniff et al., 2011).The first two debt increases, totaling US $900 billion, should be compensated by reductions in future federal spending. The BCA also determined caps on annual expenditures over the following ten years. Estimates on federal spending reductions by the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) totaled US$917 billion. For the years 2012 and 2013, the limits on security and non-security spending are separate. For the eight years thereafter, the spending cap will be effective on a single discretionary category (Heniff et al., 2011).Another part of the BCA was the establishment of a Joint select c ommissioning on Deficit Reduction. This Committee is tasked with proposing inwardness to reduce the federal deficit by at least US $1.5 trillion over the undermentioned ten years. As a result, the BCA go forths at least one dollar of spending cuts for one dollar in debt ceiling raise (Heniff et al., 2011).However, if the Joint Committee fails to produce spending cuts of at least US $1.2 trillion, then the President will be authorized to increase the debt ceiling by US $1.2 trillion that need to be compensated by a combination of the spending cuts nevertheless produced by the Joint Committee and across-the-board spending cuts, including military expenditures, education, transportation, Medicare etc. (GAO, 2012).The political battle between Republicans and Democrats had several banish consequences. The delays in raising the debt limit in 2011 resulted in additional following costs for the Treasury of some US $1.3 billion only in the monetary year 2011, which do not include the multiyear effectuate on potentially increased interest expenses for Treasury securities of future issues. Other challenges for the Treasury in managing the federal debt under the effects of these delays were the complexity, the time spent and the technical issues that arose before the staff. Moreover, the Treasurys employees had to focus on extraordinary actions kinda of focusing on its authorized debt and cash management responsibilities and staff recrudescement (GAO, 2012).The US debt passed the 100%-of-GDP mark after the governments debt ceiling was increased. The new borrowing enlarged the US debt to US$14.58 trillion, surpassing the US $14.53 trillion size of the U.S. economy in the year 2010 and moving the USA into a fiscal situation ensampleised to countries whose public debt is utmoster than their annual gross domestic product lacquer (229%), Greece (152%), Italy (120%), Ireland (114%) and Iceland (103%). The last time the U.S. debt exceeded GDP was in 1947 after Wo rld War II and the deficit was due to extraordinary war spending (Money intelligence activity, 2011).As a result of the debt increase, bill Poors (SP) rated its USA long-term sovereign credit rank from abdominal aortic aneurysm to AA+ on August 5, 2011. The lowering of the long-term sovereign credit rating by SP reflects the rating agencys believe that the the effectiveness, stability, and predictability of American policymaking and political institutions have weakened at a time of ongoing fiscal and stinting challenges to a degree more than than was envisioned when agency assigned a negative outlook to the rating on April 18, 2011 (Swann et al., 2011). SP believed that the fiscal consolidation political platform that was agreed by Congress and the President was not sufficient to stabilize the general government debt burden by 2015. Additionally, the political positions of Republicans and Democrats were still far apart and the two parties only agreed on minor savings in discr etionary expenditures. The Select Committee had to provide more comprehensive solutions. The political disputes diminished the governments capability to manage public finances and distracted attention from the ultimate goals of a more balanced budget and improvement in economic growth.SPs prospect on the long-term rating is unfavorable. The agency can even decrease the long-term rating to AA, if, for instance, the US government cuts its spending less than was negotiated or the new arising fiscal burdens over the close two year period.The other two major rating agencies, Moodys and Fitch, kept their pennant credit ratings, although they argueed out that downgrades could follow if the US government fails to implement debt reduction measures or an economic slowdown happened (Detrixhe, 2011).After raising the debt limit to US $15.2 trillion in August 2011, Congress increased the debt limit to US $16.394 trillion in January 2012. By the end of August 2012, the amount of debt reached U S $15.977 trillion, which is approximately US $417 billion below the debt limit. As the government borrows roughly between US $100 billion and US $125 billion a month, the debt was estimated to hit the limit in December 2012 (Sahadi, 2012).By December 31, 2012, the USA reached its debt ceiling, but the Treasury declared that it can pay outstanding debt obligations and other bills for the next two months. This substance that a new political battle, between Congress and the White House, for another(prenominal) increase in the debt ceiling will start in the near future. make of the US government shutdowns in 1995-1996In 2011, the US government was close to defaulting on its public debt. The potential negative consequences of a default are more severe than that of a shutdown. Nevertheless, recent shutdowns can give an example of potential harmful effects of such fiscal issues on the public and economy. In history, the US government has experienced several shutdowns (Figure XY) that c onkred when Congress fails to adjust funding for the current fiscal obligations. In this situation the government can no longer borrow funds, but the federal government can touch on to operate, given the Treasury has the opportunity to generate additional revenues or to implement picky measures. Nevertheless, the continuing incapableness to borrow would result in a default (Masters, 2013).Figure XY. Appropriations financial backing Gaps Fiscal Years 1977-1998FiscalYear while gap CommencedFull day(s)of gapsDate gap terminated1977Thursday 09-30-7610Monday 10-11-761978Friday 09-30-7712Thursday 10-13-17Monday 10-31-778Wednesday 11-09-77Wednesday 11-30-778Friday 12-09-771979Saturday 09-30-7817Wednesday 10-18-781980Sunday 09-30-7911Friday 10-12-791982Friday 11-20-812Monday 11-23-811983Thursday 9-30-821Saturday 10-2-82Friday 12-17-823Tuesday 12-21-821984Thursday 11-10-833Monday 11-14-831985Sunday 9-30-842Wednesday 10-3-84Wednesday 10-3-841Friday 10-5-841987Thursday 10-16-861Saturday 10- 18-861988Friday 12-18-871Sunday 12-20-871991Friday 10-5-903Tuesday 10-9-901996Monday 11-13-955Sunday 11-19-95Friday 12-15-9521Saturday 1-6-96Figure Appropriations Funding Gaps (Source U.S. Library of Congress, Congressional Research Service)The longest US government shutdown was a shutdown in the years 1995-1996. The U.S. government was shut down for 21 days between the December 16, 1995 and January 6th, 1996 due to the budgetary mismatches between Democratic President Bill Clinton and Republican Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich. In 1995, Clinton denied to cut steeply Medicaid, Medicare and other non-defense expenditures for the 1996 budget. Gingrich responded with the threat that Congress would not approve the increase in the debt ceiling. This would lead the USA to default on its outstanding debt. The first shutdown lasted five days from November 13 until 19 when both parties made an agreement to balance the budget in seven years period. However, the White House and Congress co uld not agree how this procedure would be accomplished resulting in the second US shutdown for 21 days. Negotiations between the President and Congress over the next 21 days resulted in the agreed seven-year balanced budget plan. The plan consisted of the revenue enhancement increases and the little spending cuts (Fiscal Politics Policy from 1970s to the Present).Gressle (1999) showed the effects of the US government shutdown on the public and economy. The first and the second shutdowns in 1995-1996 years resulted in the furlough of an estimated 800000 and 284000 federal employees respectively. The second shutdown had vast effects on all sectors of the economy. A good example is the health care sector where new patients were not accepted into National Institute of Health (HIN) clinical Center and the hotline calls to HIN regarding health problems were not answered. Around 20000-30000 applicants for US visa were not served each day resulting in million dollar losses for airlines an d tourist industries. The conclusion of 368 National Parks led to the loss of 7 million visitors and US$14.2 million per day in tourism income by locals.After the 1995-1996 shutdowns, President Clinton better his image (Lader, 2008). The majority of Americans understood that both shutdowns were due to the Republican obstinacy. Nevertheless, the shutdowns in 1995-1996 showed the aftermaths of divided government and the shift of the political policy to the rightwing.Fiscal Cliff on that point are a lot of expressions for the issue often called fiscal cliff fiscal slope, austerity crisis or fiscal obstacle course. However, all of them describe the homogeneous process, particularly, the automatic impose increases and spending cuts that take effect on January 1, 2013. However, the first person who popularized the term fiscal cliff was the chairman of the Federal Reserve, Ben Bernanke. The chairman use this expression in a speech to a congressional committee in February 2012 in referen ce to a combination of spending cuts and tax increases aline for January 1, 2013. Afterwards, the phrase was used widespread (Geoghegan, 2012).The majority of analysts predict that the implementation of the tax and spending cuts on January 1, 2013 will have no significant influence on the economy as a whole in the short run. At the same time, the long-term effects of these measures would be tremendous. If a deal can not be reached by the White House and Congress, it might have un indisputable effects on the economy such as a market panic, a drop in consumer spending, a decrease in business investments, etc. The Congressional Budget Office calculated that the budget deficit would decrease by US $0.5 trillion from 2012 to 2013 and the economy would slow down due to a resulting recession. Almost all Americans would experience a rise of their tax bills with the estimated increase at US $3500 and an after-tax income decline by 6.2% for the average family (Lowrey, 2012).On Tuesday Januar y 1, 2013, Congress approved a deal to end the long partisan dispute over the fiscal cliff. The main stirs that were set were the end of last years temporary payroll tax cuts (resulting in a 2% tax increase for workers), the end of certain tax breaks for businesses, shifts in the alternative minimum tax that would take a larger bite, a rollback of the Bush tax cuts from 2001-2003, and the beginning of taxes related to President Obamas health care law. At the same time, the spending cuts agreed upon as part of the debt ceiling deal of 2011 will begin to go into effect (Kenny, 2013).The agreement leads to the increase of the tax rate from 35% to 39.6 % for single persons who earn US $400000 and for couples with an income above US $450000 per year. Americans should also pay higher(prenominal) taxes on dividends and capital gains with the tax rate rising from 15% to 20%. Also, the tax for estates with a value above US$5 million will be taxed by 40% (previous rate 35%), but Republicans succeeded in indexing the threshold of US $5 million to inflation and thus smoothing the effects of the estate tax for tight Americans (Ungar, 2013).Among other changes were the extension of an additional year of unemployment benefits for nearly 2 million Americans, the doctor fix related to Medicare and tax credits for college tuition that were extended for another five years (Ungar, 2013).The agreement prevents a significant increase of income tax for roughly 100 million American families that earn less than US $250000 annually. However, the 2% payroll tax cut, that was originally part of the 2009 stimulus package, will expire (Montgomery and Helderman, 2013). The above measures will prevent the severe economic downturn that could happen in case of going over the fiscal cliff. President Obama pointed out in his brief statement that the new measures would produce US $620 billion in new tax revenues (Montgomery and Helderman, 2013).In conclusion, the new measures that were set to avoid the fiscal cliff were not the ultimate goal of neither Republicans nor Democrats. Republicans are not satisfied with the tax increases and the lack of spending reductions, while Democrats complain about the provisions regarding estates. It seems that the political dispute will observe in the near future and the agreement signed on December 31, 2012 was just a short-term fix to avoid the fiscal cliff.Foreign Holdings of US Public Debt and its Political ImplicationsA all-important(a) point in analyzing the current situation of US public debt and its political implications is the detailed understanding of orthogonal holdings. As of July 2012 (most recent data), foreign countries owned a total of US dollar 5.4 trillion of U.S. debt, which is approximately 34% of total debt outstanding of US dollar 15.9 trillion. The three largest single foreign holders are the central banks of chinaware, japan and Brazil. Comparing the situation in July 2012 with the state in July 2002, one ca n see that the proportion of foreign holdings in US public debt outstanding has big from approximately 19% to 34% (Treasury Direct, 2012). Figure XY shows that as of July 2012, mainland China is the largest single holder of US public debt with a share of approximately 7.2% followed by Japan with a corresponding share of about 7.0% (US Department of the Treasury, 2012).Figure Foreign Holdings of US Public Debt (Source Treasury Direct, 2012 U.S. Department of the Treasury, 2012)Given its low savings rate, the US economy is strongly dependent on foreign capital inflows from countries with high savings order (for example China1) to meet its domestic investment need and to fund the federal budget deficit. Important to understand is that the willingness of foreign countries to invest in the US economy and to purchase US public debt has helped to keep US real interest rates relatively low in the past, which until recently, contributed to a great uttermost to a fast US economic growth and enabled the country to consume more that it produces for a long time. just about renowned economists also argue that the US dependence on foreign savings was a bring factor to the US subprime crisis and the subsequent global financial crisis. However, the size and the recent growth of US public debt have raised jobs about the willingness of foreign countries to continue to invest in US public debt securities. For example, some Chinese analysts claimed that the government should diversify its reserves away from US dollar summations into assets of other currencies. An important short-term political implication of Chinas large holdings in US public debt is that, if China might suddenly decide to change a large share of its holdings, this would commence other foreign investors to sell off their holdings as well, which could dramatically destabilize the US economy. Possible consequences can be the depreciation of the US dollar as its supply on foreign exchange markets increase d and a large increase in US interest rates as a crucial source of funding for investments and the budget deficit is withdrawn from financial markets (Morrison and Labonte, 2012).Therefore, China seems currently able to destabilize the US economy through the sale of a large share of its US debt holdings, which can be seen as a financial weapon (Sandbrook, 2012). In addition, in the long run, if China reduces its US securities, the US would need to replace it with other foreign or domestic investors to fill in the gap. Those investors would probably have to be acquired through higher interest rates compared to those of today. Increased interest rates would cause a fall in all kinds of interest-sensitive spending. The reducing of Chinese Treasury holdings would all else equal cause the foreign demand for US assets do decline, which would then lead to a dollar depreciation (Morrison and Labonte, 2012). All in all, given a large reduction in Chinas holdings of US public debt, the con tinue on the US economy would still be dependent on whether this reduction takes place gradually or suddenly.Some US policymakers also argue that Chinas large holdings of US public debt give it leverage over the united States on economic and noneconomic issues. An illustrative example of this concern is Ding Gang, an editor of Chinas Peoples Daily2, who wrote in an editorial in August 2011 that the Peoples Republic of China should create a direct link between the amount of US Treasury holdings with the US arms sales to Taiwan. Gang states Now is the time for China to use its financial weapon to teach the coupled States a lesson if it moves forward with a plan to sale arms to Taiwan. In fact, China has never wanted to use its holdings of U.S. debt as a weapon. It is the United States that is forcing it to do so. China has no choice but to use it as a weapon to defend itself when facing threats to Chinas sovereignty (Gang, 2011). Altogether, Chinas holdings in US public debt can be seen as a strong instrument to put pressure on the United States with regards to political disputes between the two countries. As a result, the growing dependency of the US on China to purchase US Treasury securities to fund the countrys budget deficit has become a major concern to many US policymakers (Morrison and Labonte, 2012).However, the probability that China would suddenly reduce its holdings of US public debt is highly questionable because of the fact that doing so could potentially have a significant negative impact on the Chinese economy as well. The important causality which takes away Chinas incentive to sell is the fact that any Chinese attempt to sell a large portion of its US debt holdings could, on the one hand, dramatically reduce the value of its remaining holdings in international markets. On the other hand, a negative demand shock in the United States would also dramatically reduce US demand for Chinese exports, either through an appreciation of the Chinese Yua n against the US Dollar or a reduction in the US economic growth (especially if other foreign investors sell their US asset holdings as well and the United States are forced to raise interest rates in response) (Morrison and Labonte, 2012). This is especially severe because of the fact that China was the United States largest supplier of goods imports in 2011. US goods imports from China totaled U.S. dollar 399 billion in 2011, a 9.4% increase from 2010 and up 299% since 2000. Imports from China into the United States accounted for 18% of overall US imports in 2010 (Office of the United State Trade Representative, 2012). A sharp reduction of US imports from China could therefore have a significant negative impact on Chinas economy, which heavily depends on exports into the United States for its economic growth. Moreover, in the case of China, economic growth is also seen as a vital source of political stability and therefore in the interest of the government. Consequently, it can b e argued that the US and Chinese economies are mutually dependent3on each other, which, as a matter of fact, gives China very little leverage over US policy (Morrison and Labonte, 2012). The former US Treasury Secretary Lawrence Summers called the mutual damage which would occur to the US and Chinese economies the balance of financial terror (Dorn, 2008). For some time, this balance of financial terror as well as the global financial trunk has kept China off from exploiting their power position (Dorn, 2008).Nonetheless, regardless of the balance of financial terror, growing bilateral tensions over the US public debt between the United States and China can clearly be observed. For example, the government-controlled Chinese newspaper Xinhua News Agency expressed a lot of criticism on US economic policies regarding the US public debt situationWith its debt approximating its annual economic output, it is time for Washington to revisit the time-tested common sense that one should live w ithin ones delegacy (Xinhua News Agency, July 2011).The days when the debt-ridden Uncle Sam could leisurely squander unlimited overseas borrowing appeared to be numbered as its triple A-credit rating was slashed by Standard Poors (SP) for the first time on Friday. China, the largest creditor of the military personnels sole superpower, has every right now to demand the United States to address its structural debt problems and ensure the safety of Chinas dollar assets (Xinhua News Agency, August 2011).To relieve further bilateral tensions between the two countries, China should pursue a more market-liberal path and the United States should abstain from implementing protectionist measures. Doing this, the US-China relationship should develop peacefully and global prosperity will continue. Consequently, the balance of financial terror would collapse and give way to free trade and capital freedom (Dorn, 2008).In conclusion, the main political issue from the perspective of the United S tates is not Chinas large holdings of US public debt per se, but rather the high US reliance on foreign capital in general and whether this reliance is sustainable in the future (Morrison and Labonte, 2012). Policymakers in the United States should therefore think about the medium- and long-run implications of the countrys high amount of public debt held by foreigners. To do that in an appropriate way, they have to take into account and to understand the economic and political relationships between the United States and its debt holders, with China leading the way. A first step to mitigate the problem is to launch political measures so that the United States increases its level of savings in the long-term in order to reduce the vulnerability to a possible shift away from US assets by foreign investors (Morrison and Labonte, 2012).The Role of U.S. Public Debt in the Global parsimonyUndoubtedly, the United States still plays an exceptional role in the global economy. First of all, th e country is the largest economy in the world. Secondly, it clearly dominates the global monetary system The United States capital markets are among the most liquid ones (Schuman, 2011) and the special status of the dollar as the worlds reserve currency has become an crucial aspect of Americas power, allowing the country to borrow effortlessly and maintain an assertive foreign policy (Warnock, 2010). In addition, the US dollar is the primary currency used in foreign exchange proceeding and trade. Also, as already mentioned in the chapter before, countries such as China and Japan store their national wealth to a large extent in US public debt. The perception has always been that the United States has a safe haven status, meaning that when investors get nervous, they increase dollar-based assets, and especially also US public debt (Schuman, 2011). Having utter all this, given the exceptional status of the United States in the world economy, the global economic and political consequen ces of the development of US public debt are substantial. change magnitude US public debt bears the risk of a fundamental change in the perception of the safe haven status of the United States. Schuman (2011) speculates on what would happen if this change in perception comes true4 US Treasury securities would be seen as riskier than before and would consequently lose their attractiveness. As a result, interest rates would increase in the United States, raising borrowing costs in the economy and making it more difficult for the US government to finance debt and budget deficits. This can potentially lead to a significant decrease in investments and consumption. The US dollar will presumptively depreciate, which will devaluate currency reserves around the globe. All those effects taken together will have negative consequences on the growth of the US economy, lowering living standards for Americans and eventually leading to a slower growth of the world economy. To put it simple, a los s of confidence in the United States as a safe haven results in higher interest rates, which will automatically have negative consequences on the world economy (International Monetary Fund, 2012). Therefore, the exceptional role of the United States makes its public debt situation self-destructive for the shape of the global economy due to the fact that overwhelming debt amounts can cause effects that potentially destabilize the world economy.In addition, the ten-year US Treasury bond has the status of the worlds risk-free asset, meaning that the United States is the basic standard by which risk in financial markets is assessed (Warnock, 2010). This is sometimes referred to as the risk-free standard and is a basic convention regularly used in all different kinds of valuations in the daily business world. In particular, the risk-free standard is an important measure in the context of corporate and asset valuation (Damodaran, 2008). Loosing the safe haven status of the United States as a possible consequence of the above-described developments means loosing the risk-free standard convention, resulting in global efficiency losses and higher risks of economic and financial fragmentation (Schuman, 2011).Although the United States exceptional status in the world economy makes its debt situation risky, that status obviously gives the country particular protection as well. A meaningful example of this protection is the warning of Standard Poors to downgrade the United States from its traditional prized AAA credit rating in April 2011 (Schuman, 2011) This warning was a strong signal that Standard Poors was not concerned about the special status of the US in the global economy, meaning that if the country is not able to get its debt situation under control, it will be confronted with a downgrade similar to those of Greece, Spain or Japan. However, financial market participants acted against what economic intuition and theory tells us. US Treasuries weakened immedia tely after Standard Poors announcement, a clear sign that investors were selling them. Nevertheless, they returned to their old strength shortly afterwards, suggesting that investors even bought US public debt after Standard Poors warning instead of selling them to a large extent (Schuman, 2011). Moreover, some reactions of major US bondholders indicated that they are not concerned about the countrys financial condition. For example, at the time Japanese Finance Minister Yoshihiko Noda mentioned basically we continue to believe that US Treasuries are an attractive product for us (Channel NewsAsia, 2011).A further crucial point in the context of the role of US public debt in the global economy is the argument that US policymakers have been relying probably subconsciously on the exceptional status of the United States (Schuman, 2011).5The particular role of the US in the global economy leads to the outcome that the country does not have to face dangers other nations could never avoid. A political implication of this behavior is presumably that according to some critical authors and journalists the United States are one of the few heavily indebted developed economies that does not have a credible plan to control deficits and debt6(Schuman, 2011). To put it in simple words, US policymakers have possibly been banking on being like American International Group (AIG) or everyday Motors (GM) in America or UBS in Switzerland, acting as if the country is too big to fail7.In conclusion, one can state that a debt crisis in Portugal for example can potentially create uncertainty through world financial markets, and if a larger country such as Spain poisonous into crisis, this uncertainty could have destabilizing effects. But US public debt bears the risk of crashing the entire operating system of the global economy. Hen

Effects of Homework in Therapy Sessions

Effects of Homework in Therapy SessionsActivities given to clients to complete in amidst therapeutic sessions have become a commonly used component of psychological therapies, especially cognitive approaches (Beck et al., 1979). What is sometimes called homework has been used to help enshroud a wide variety of clinical problems including depressive disorders, schizophrenia and social phobia. This essay critically examines the empirical studies on homework and its influence on treatment outgrowths.The line homework can include a wide variety of different activities given to clients. Scheel et al. (1999) provide some typical examples of those most often used by cognitive therapists those involving reframing meanings, validation of internal experiences, social interactions and decision making. It has been hypothesised that homework is effective by encouraging the client to practice new skills learned in therapy outside of those therapeutic sessions (Burns, Adams Anastopoulos, 1985) . While the term homework has been criticised for its unpleasant connotations with schoolwork (Coon et al., 2005), the real, practical question is whether the process itself actually improves patient outcomes.Despite its broad use inside cognitive therapy, there has been relatively little research into its effectiveness until recently (Kazantzis, Deane Ronan, 2000). Broadly two types of studies have been carried out to examine the effect of homework on treatment outcomes correlational and those with a control group. Correlational studies have generally found a validatory association between adherence to homework and a more positive outcome. For example Burns and Spangler (2000) found that compliance to homework was significantly associated with reduced depression. These authors overly report that their effect sizes were large, translating to an average reduction of 16.6 points on the Beck Depression Inventory for those who completed their homework compared with a reduction of onl y 2.4 points for those who did little (or no) homework. Other studies have also reached similar conclusions (e.g. Burns Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991 Leung Heimberg, 1996). Despite these positive results these types of studies are always open to the criticism that they are weak evidence because of their correlational design. It may be, for example, that homework compliance is simply a result of forward motion rather than a cause.Better designs incorporating a control group which can, therefore, impute causativeity have not produced such definitive results, are far fewer, and older. or so have shown positive effects for homework (e.g. Kazdin Mascitelli, 1982), while others have failed to show a positive effect (e.g. Blanchard et al., 1991). This uncertainty was underlined by a meta-analysis of both the correlational and control group studies carried out by Kazantzis et al. (2000) which reported a weighted average effect size for 27 such studies as 0.36 only a small to moderate effect f ar smaller than that reported by Burns and Spangler (2000). This meta-analysis has also been criticised for including studies that were not controlled and some which had poor designs (Lambert, Harmon, Slade, 2007).The majority of studies since Kazantzis et al.s (2000) meta-analysis have also been correlational. Coon and Thompson (2003), for example, examined the use of homework in older adults with mild to moderate depression. Using a regression analysis they found homework was associated with better outcomes exactly this is still effectively only correlational data. Rees, McEvoy and Nathan (2005) recruited participants with both disquiet and depression and found homework was associated with better outcomes. But, again this study was correlational in design. For anxiety disorders, however, even correlational studies have proved less conclusive than for depression. Some studies of anxiety have found positive correlations (e.g. Wetherell et al., 2005), while others have not (e.g. oaken Adessky, 2002). For more serious mental disorders such as schizophrenia, empirical work is only just emerging and the results of two studies have found no birth between improved schizophrenia symptoms and homework compliance (Dunn, Morrison Bentall, 2006 Granholm et al., 2006).In conclusion, the picture emerging from the empirical literature is positive for the effect of homework compliance on outcome only when the correlational data is examined. This work suggests mild to moderate depression is responsive to homework, while anxiety disorders and psychosis is less so. Unfortunately these types of studies find it troublesome to counter the argument that homework compliance is simply a result of a better outcome, rather than a cause. Controlled experimental designs, which can make this causal distinction, have been few and are generally much less conclusive. Consequently, while the use of homework in cognitive therapy seems likely to do little deterioration (although the t erm may have some stigma attached), the extant research is yet to definitively demonstrate it has more than a marginal benefit.ReferencesBeck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., Emery, G. (1979). Cognitive therapy for depression. New York Guildford Press.Blanchard, E. B., Nicholson, N. L., Radnitz, C., Steffek, B. D., Appelbaum, K. A., Dentinger, M. P. (1991). The division of home practice in thermal biofeedback. Journal of Consulting Clinical psychological science, 59, 507-512.Burns, D. D., Adams, R. L. Anastopoulos, A. D. (1985). The role of self-help assignments in the treatment of depression. In E. E. Beckham W. R. Leber (Eds.), enchiridion of depression treatment, assessment, and research (pp. 634-668). Homewood, IL Dorsey Press.Burns, D. D., Nolenn-Hoeksema, S. (1991). deal styles, homework compliance, and the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy. Journal of Consulting Clinical psychology, 59, 305-311.Burns, D. D., Spangler, D. L. (2000). Does psychotherapy h omework lead to improvements in depression in cognitive-behavioral therapy or does improvement lead to increased homework compliance? Journal of Consulting Clinical Psychology, 68, 46-56.Coon, D. W., Thompson, L. W. (2003). The relationship between homework compliance and treatment outcomes among older adult outpatients with mild-to-moderate depression. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 11, 53-61.Coon, D. W., Rabinowitz, Y. G., Thompson, L. W., Gallacher-Thompson, D. (2005). Older Adults. In N. Kazantzis, F. P. Deane, K. R. Ronan L. LAbate (Eds.). Using Homework Assignments in Cognitive-behavioral Therapy (pp. 117-152). New York Routledge.Dunn, H., Morrison, A. P., Bentall, R. P. (2006). The relationship between patient suitability, therapeutic alliance, homework compliance and outcome in cognitive therapy for psychosis. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 13, 145-152.Granholm, E., Auslander, L. A., Gottlieb, J. D., McQuaid, J. R., McClure, F. S. (2006). Therapeutic factors contributing to change in cognitive-behavioral group therapy for older persons with schizophrenia. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 36, 31-41.Kazantzis, N., Deane, F., Ronan, K. R. (2000). Homework assignments in cognitive behavioral therapy A Meta-Analysis. Clinical Psychology Science and Practice, 7, 189-202.Kazdin, A. E., Mascitelli, S. (1982). Covert and overt rehearsal and homework practice in developing assertiveness. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 50, 250-258.Lambert, M. J., Harmon, S. C., Slade, K. (2007). 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Social Order in P.D. James’ A Mind To Murder Essay -- P.D. James A Min

P.D. jam A Mind To Murder - Social Order One of the basic assumptions underlying any research worker novel is a sense of social order. The novelist assumes that the reader agrees that killing people is wrong it does non matter if the victims are exemplary citizens or odious individuals, it is the stainless act of snuffing unwrap a nonhers life that is against the social order. In P.D. James A Mind To Murder, Nurse Marion Bolams murder of her stuffy and sanctimonious cousin Enid illustrates a situation where the nurse and her invalid mother had suffered from her cousins stinginess James gives us a clear look at the manslayers fear that if Enid had been given time to change her will as she had threatened to do, the Marion and her mother would never get the money to which they considered themselves entitled. However, James urges us to understand, this does not matter. Murder, for whatever reason it is committed, is still murder, and it is al government agencys wrong. Howeve r, the murder of Enid Bolam is not the only violation of the social order which James describes in this book. Chief amongst his other villains is woodpecker Nagle, the young and attractive porter at the Steen Clinic. Peter is also a gifted painter, and is only working at the clinic to pay his living expenses while he waits for a prestigious arts grant to come his way. However, Peter is infected with the arrogance of those who feel that their talent entitles them to liberties unavailable to the rest of society. He bouncys in a magnificent studio apartment, and owns only the very best painting equipment. He obviously cannot afford this on a clinic-porters salary, so he figures out a way to, with Marion Bolams help, blackmail former patients into paying him fifteen pounds... ...r, who wasnt really at fault in any of this, has gone to live in a nursing home where she will be well-cared for, since her daughter obviously wont be there to do it. This isnt a perfect solution, but it isnt a perfect world, and it would be false to P.D. James premises to assume that everything can be returned to a state of Eden. However, James seems to feel that we as social beings have an obligation to keep everything as close to an ideal social paradigm as possible. Only in this way will everyone be in a position to achieve maximum happiness. The narcissism of Peter Nagle serves as a sober warning that we are not put on earth to ride roughshod over everyone else in our selfish search for happiness, but that happiness is a social construct in which everyone should reap equal benefit and for which everyone should assume equal responsibility.

Oppression in Sinclairs The Jungle and Steinbecks The Grapes Of Wrath

Oppression in Sinclairs The Jungle and Steinbecks The Grapes Of Wrath In The Jungle, by Upton Sinclair, and The Grapes of Wrath, by John Steinbeck, the characters are oblige with economic, social, and political problems that they must cope with throughout the story. Both books are similar in that they emphasize that in this country, one simply cannot win unless they play by natures rules.The economic problems of both stories were great. Jurgis (The Jungle) wishes to go to America to get rich. Buying a house stresses the whole idea of animals to have something that is theirs. This is also shown with the Joads. They go to California in search of money and something of their own as well. Both, however, are faced with strong economic problems. For Jurgis, it is the poor manag...

Hitlers Rise To Power :: essays research papers

How Hitler got into PowerAt the end of the war Germany underwent a rapid political restructuring. Following this transition from authoritarian monarchy to democratic republic, Weimar Germany immediately began to display weaknesses that it would ultimately never fix. Germany had to create a government that the Allies would be prepared to negotiate with, so Hindenburg ordered a government which had the bear of the Reichstag. When Kaiser William II fled the country, Germany could still have remained a monarchy, as Williams son was eligible for the throne. The Weimar Republic was not based on strong public convictions, which must, in part, inform its weakness. There were many flaws in thew Weimar Republic. Weimar had great problems gaining acceptance throughout Germany, too. The terribly harsh conditions of the Treaty of Versailles angered Germans, especially the military everywhere and many order their resentment at the Weimar government who signed the Treaty. Defeat in a large-sca le war always signals the beginning of a difficult period for a nation. Following World War I, Germany was virtually crushed by the harsh demands of the Treaty of Versailles. The German economy was weighed down heavily by the enormous reparations bill. Weimar governments struggled to escort the huge reparations compensatements and their failure to do so was the basis of further problems. One such event was the additional humiliation of the French and Belgian occupation of the Ruhr in 1923. The French took control of the coal mines and factories of the region, so the workers, following a policy of passive resistance, went on strike. The French employed their own men to work the area, whilst the German government committed to paying the wages of the striking workers. This was a very expensive exercise and, on top of that, Germany lost profits from industry in the Ruhr and actually had to spend money importing coal. These massive drains on the German economy caused inflation to soar to incredible levels, paralleling the dramatic drops in the value of the reichsmark. It is trustworthy that the Reichsbank printed more and more money to the point where over 44 trillion marks was in circulation. Some historians argue that the Weimar government did this deliberately, to devalue their currency, making it cheaper to pay reparations. The downside of this was that middle and working class Germans lost their savings and the value of their wages. For instance in November 1923, the cost of a loaf of bread in Berlin was about 201 gazillion marks

Legalization of Marijuana :: Argumentative, Marijuana Legalization

The legalization of hemp has been questioncapable for many many years now, only if the government just seems to always decline. I feel that marijuana should be legalized. There are many reasons for and against legalization, but the arguments for it outweigh the arguments against it. I believe marijuana should be legalized for three main reasons. Legalization will bring in much needed tax dollars, it will free up prisons and their resources, and it will just the U.S tons of money. If marijuana is legalized, it can be taxed by the federal government, like alcohol and cigarettes are now. If this is done, not only will the government save millions of dollars on searching for marijuana, the government will make billions of dollars off the sale of marijuana which can be used for drug education programs to help educate the youthfulness of America. In the United States, all levels of government (federal, state, and local authorities) participate in the War on Drugs. We currently spend billions of dollars every(prenominal) year to chase sedate people who happen to like to get high. These people get locked up in prison and the taxpayers have to foot the bill. We have to pay for food, housing, health care, lawyer fees, court costs, and other expenses to lock these people up. This is extremely expensive If you must know, it costs taxpayers like you and me $42,000 a year to keep just one guilty in jail. Thats more than twice the amount citizens spend on sending their children to school. Taxpayers only spend a dissapointing $13,000 a year for public schooling. We could save billions of dollars every year as a nation if we stop wasting money locking people up for having marijuana. In addition, if marijuana were legal, the government would be able to collect taxes on it, and would have a lot more money to pay for effective drug education programs and other important causes. According to The cover up of the Task Force on Cannabis Regulation to the Center for the Study of Drug Policy, marijuana is one of the largest tax-exempt industries in the country today. 10-15 billion dollars a year could be made simply by legalizing cannabis. Hemp, the nonpsychoactive version of the plant, has many, many uses but is outlawed by the U.S. government. Hemp is an incredibly strong case that can be used for ropes, clothes and

The White Man’s Burden :: Literary Analysis, Kipling

In the White Mans Burden, Rudyard Kipling claims that it is the duty or burden of the white men to civilize the non-whites, to discipline them and to religiously lift them (lecture notes, 2/8). Kipling is specifically talking about the colonized non-whites (lecture notes, 2/8). The idea that the newly colonized non-whites were lacking and needing serve up from a great society was common among American whites at this time (lecture notes, 2/8). Rudyard uses the whites public feelings towards the issue and writes The White Mans Burden in an attempt to expunge the whites to help the non-whites because he thinks it is a very beneficial movement for the U.S.Rudyard meant this poem to be a shocking and informative form of encouragement for the whites to take up the burden of saving the non-white civilizations that they have now signed up for responsibility over. In The White Mans Burden, Rudyard claims that the whites are bound to help the non-whites out of religious duty and for the whites own good (Rudyard). In the last stanza, Rudyard excessively explains that the non-whites have been through a potful do to the whites imperialism (Rudyard). Although he explains the non-whites grievances, Rudyard does not really seem to be that sympathetic for the non-whites but instead, he seems to think very brusk of them and pretty much says they are incapable of taking occupy of themselves. At the time that Rudyard published The White Mans Burden, whites were already conflicted on what to do about the non-whites (US, 437). Some whites claimed that there should be little to no intervention of the whites on the non-white societies because Charles Darwins theory of survival of the fittest is the way that things should be (US, 437). The whites who were for intervention argued that it was the humane and religious duty of whites to become involved (US, 437). They also exclaimed that it was better to help the non-white develop because of the need for trade (US, 437). Because there had already been such a debate between the whites over this issue, Rudyards poem gained heed quick (lecture notes, 2/8). Rudyards work gained attention of American leaders and became an inspiration for future actions of imperialism (lecture notes, 2/8). Rudyards poem seemed to have gained a lot of popularity because of his tone of nationalism. In the poem, he basically says that in order to be respected as one of the greater nations, America has to do some bounty work and help some of the less fortunate (Rudyard).